The Origins and History of Wine Making

Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from grapes, and depending on your definition of made from grapes there are at least two independent inventions of it. The oldest known possible evidence for the use of grapes as part of a wine recipe with fermented rice and honey comes from China, about 9,000 years ago. Two thousand years later, the seeds of what became the European winemaking tradition began in western Asia. Archaeological Evidence Archaeological evidence of winemaking is a little difficult to come by because the presence of grape seeds, fruit skins, stems, and/or stalks at an archaeological site does not necessarily imply the production of wine. The two main methods of identifying winemaking accepted by scholars are the presence of domesticated stocks and evidence of grape processing. The main mutation incurred during the domestication process of grapes was the advent of hermaphroditic flowers, meaning that domesticated forms of grapes are capable of self-pollination. Thus, vintners can pick traits they like and, as long as the vines are kept on the same hillside, they need not worry about cross-pollination changing next years grapes. The discovery of parts of the plant outside its native territory is also accepted evidence of domestication. The wild ancestor of the European wild grape (Vitis vinifera sylvestris) is native to western Eurasia between the Mediterranean and Caspian Seas; thus, the presence of V. vinifera outside of its normal range is also considered evidence of domestication. Chinese Wines The real story of wine from grapes begins in China. Residues on pottery shards radiocarbon dated to around 7000–6600 BCE from the Chinese early Neolithic site of Jiahu have been recognized as coming from a fermented beverage made of a mixture of rice, honey, and fruit. The presence of fruit was identified by the tartaric acid/tartrate remnants at the bottom of a jar. (These are familiar to anyone who drinks wine from corked bottles today.) Researchers could not narrow down the species of the tartrate between grape, hawthorn, or longyan or cornelian cherry, or a combination of two or more of those ingredients. Grape seeds and hawthorn seeds have both been found at Jiahu. Textual evidence for the use of grapes—although not specifically grape wine—date to the Zhou Dynasty circa 1046–221 BCE. If grapes were used in wine recipes, they were from a wild grape species native to China, not imported from western Asia. There are between 40 and 50 different wild grape species in China. The European grape was introduced into China in the second century BCE, along with other Silk Road imports. Western Asia Wines The earliest firm evidence for winemaking to date in western Asia is from the Neolithic period site called Hajji Firuz, Iran (dated to 5400–5000 BCE), where a deposit of sediment preserved at the bottom of an amphora was proven to be a mix of tannin and tartrate crystals. The site deposits included five more jars similar to the one with the tannin/tartrate sediment, each with a capacity of about nine liters of liquid. Sites outside of the normal range for grapes with early evidence of grapes and grape processing in western Asia include Lake Zeriber, Iran, where grape pollen was found in a soil core just before around 4300 cal BCE. Charred fruit skin fragments were found at Kurban Hà ¶yà ¼k in southeastern Turkey by the late sixth through the early fifth millennia BCE. Wine importation from western Asia has been identified in the earliest days of dynastic Egypt. A tomb belonging to the Scorpion King (dated about 3150 BCE) contained 700 jars believed to have been made and filled with wine in the Levant and shipped to Egypt. European Winemaking In Europe, wild grape (Vitis vinifera) pips have been found in fairly ancient contexts, such as Franchthi Cave, Greece (12,000 years ago), and Balma de lAbeurador, France (about 10,000 years ago). But the evidence for domesticated grapes is later than that of East Asia, although similar to that of the western Asia grapes. Excavations at a site in Greece called Dikili Tash have revealed grape pips and empty skins, direct-dated to between 4400–4000 BCE, the earliest example to date in the Aegean. A clay cup containing both grape juice and grape pressings is thought to represent evidence for fermentation at Dikili Tash. Grapevines and wood have also been found there. A wine production installation dated to circa 4000 BCE has been identified at the site of Areni-1 cave complex in Armenia, consisting of a platform for crushing grapes, a method of moving the crushed liquid into storage jars, and, potentially, evidence of the fermentation of red wine. By the Roman period, and likely spread by Roman expansion, viticulture reached most of the Mediterranean area and western Europe, and wine became a highly valued economic and cultural commodity. By the end of the first century BCE, it had become a major speculative and commercial product. The Long Road to New-World Wines When Icelandic explorer Leif Erikson landed on the shores of North America circa 1000 CE, he dubbed the newly discovered territory Vinland (alternately spelled Winland) due to the profusion of wild grapevines growing there. Not surprisingly, when European settlers began arriving in the New World about 600 years later, the prolific potential for viticulture seemed obvious. Unfortunately, with the notable exception of Vitis rotundifolia (known colloquially as  the  muscadine or Scuppernong  grape) which flourished predominantly in the South, most varieties of native grapes settlers first encountered did not lend themselves to making tasty—or even potable—wine.  It took numerous attempts, many years, and the use of more suitable grapes for colonists to achieve even modest winemaking success. â€Å"The struggle to make the New World yield wine such as they had known in Europe was begun by the earliest settlers and was persisted in for generations, only to end in defeat over and over again,† writes award-winning culinary author and professor of English, Emeritus, at Pomona College, Thomas Pinney. â€Å"Few things can have been more eagerly tried and more thoroughly frustrated in American history than the enterprise of growing European varieties of grapes for the making of wine. Not until it was recognized that only the native grape varieties could succeed against the endemic diseases and harsh climate of North America did winemaking have a chance in the eastern part of the country.† Pinney notes it wasnt until the mid-19th century colonization of California that things truly changed for American viticulture. European grapes flourished in Californias mild climate, launching an industry. He credits the development of new hybrid grapes and accumulated trial and error with widening the scope of winemaking in more challenging and diverse conditions outside California. By the beginning of the 20th century, the growing of grapes and the making of wine across the United States was a proven and important economic activity, he writes. The hopes of the first settlers, after nearly three centuries of trial, defeat, and renewed effort were at last realized. 20th-Century Wine Innovations Wines are fermented with yeast, and until the mid-20th century, the process relied on naturally-occurring yeasts. Those fermentations often had inconsistent results and, because they took a long time to work, were vulnerable to spoilage. One of the most significant advances in winemaking was the introduction of pure starter strains of Mediterranean Saccharomyces cerevisiae (commonly called brewers yeast) in the 1950s and 1960s. Since that time, commercial wine fermentations have included these S. cerevisiae strains, and there are now hundreds of reliable commercial wine yeast starter cultures around the world, enabling consistent wine production quality. Another game-changing—and controversial—innovation that had a huge impact on 20th-century winemaking was the introduction of screw-cap tops and synthetic corks. These new bottle stoppers challenged the dominance of traditional natural cork, whose history dates back to ancient Egyptian times. When they debuted in the 1950s, screw-top wine bottles were initially associated with value-oriented jugs of wine, reports Allison Aubrey, a James Beard broadcast award-winning journalist.  The image of gallon jugs and inexpensive fruit-flavored wines was hard to overcome. Still, corks being a natural product were far from perfect. Improperly sealed corks leaked, dried out, and crumbled. (In fact, corked or cork taint are terms for spoiled wine—whether the bottle was sealed with a cork or not.) Australia, one of the worlds leading wine producers, began to rethink the cork back in the 1980s. Improved screw-top technology, along with the introduction of synthetic corks, gradually gained headway, even in the high-end wine market. While some oenophiles refuse to accept anything other than cork, most wine aficionados now embrace the newer technology. Boxed and bagged wine, also recent innovations, are becoming increasingly popular as well. Fast Facts: 21st Century U.S. Wine Statistics Number of wineries  in the United States: 10,043 as of February 2019Highest production by state: At 4,425 wineries, California produces 85% of the wine in the U.S. That is followed by Washington (776 wineries), Oregon (773), New York (396), Texas (323), and Virginia (280).Percentage of adult Americans who drink wine: 40% of the legal drinking population, which amounts to 240 million people.U.S. wine consumers by gender: 56% female, 44% maleU.S. wine consumers by age group: Mature (age 73), 5%;  Baby Boomers (54 to 72), 34%; Gen X (42 to 53), 19%; Millennials (24 to 41), 36%, I-Generation (21 to 23), 6%Per capita wine consumption: 11 liters per person each year, or 2.94 gallons 21st-Century Wine Technology One of the most interesting innovations in 21st Century winemaking is a process called  micro-oxygenation (known in the trade as â€Å"mox†) that reduces some of the risks associated with aging red wine by traditional methods in which red wines are cellared in cork-sealed bottles. Tiny pores in cork let in enough oxygen to permeate the wine as it ages. The process â€Å"softens† the natural tannins, letting the wine’s unique flavor profile develop, usually over long periods of time. Mox mimics natural aging by incrementally introducing small amounts of oxygen to wine as it’s being made. In general, the resulting wines are smoother, more stable in color, and have less harsh and unpleasant notes. DNA sequencing, another recent trend, has enabled researchers to trace the spread of S. cerevisiae in commercial wines for the past 50 years, comparing and contrasting different geographical regions, and according to researchers, providing the possibility for improved wines in the future. Sources The Origins and Ancient History of Wine, maintained by archaeologist Patrick McGovern The University of Pennsylvania.Antoninetti, Maurizio. The Long Journey of Italian Grappa: From Quintessential Element to Local Moonshine to National Sunshine. Journal of Cultural Geography 28.3 (2011): 375–97. Print.Bacilieri, Roberto, et al. Potential of Combining Morphometry and Ancient DNA Information to Investigate Grapevine Domestication. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 26.3 (2017): 345–56. Print.Barnard, Hans, et al. Chemical Evidence for Wine Production around 4000 Bce in the Late Chalcolithic Near-Eastern Highlands. Journal of Archaeological Science 38.5 (2011): 977-84. Print.Borneman, Anthony, et al. Wine Yeast: Where Are They from and Where Are We Taking Them? Wine Viticulture Journal 31.3 (2016): 47–49. Print.Campbell-Sills, H., et al. Advances in Wine Analysis by Ptr-Tof-Ms: Optimization of the Method and Discrimination of Wines from Different Geographical Orig ins and Fermented with Different Malolactic Starters. International Journal of Mass Spectrometry 397–398 (2016): 42-51. Print.Goldberg, Kevin D. Acidity and Power: The Politics of Natural Wine in Nineteenth-Century Germany. Food and Foodways 19.4 (2011): 294–313. Print.Guasch Janà ©, Maria Rosa. The Meaning of Wine in Egyptian Tombs: The Three Amphorae from Tutankhamuns Burial Chamber. Antiquity 85.329 (2011): 851–58. Print.McGovern, Patrick E., et al. Beginnings of Viniculture in France. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110.25 (2013): 10147–52. Print.Morrison–Whittle, Peter, and Matthew R. Goddard. From Vineyard to Winery: A Source Map of Microbial Diversity Driving Wine Fermentation. Environmental Microbiology 20.1 (2018): 75–84. Print.Orrà ¹, Martino, et al. Morphological Characterisation of Vitis Vinifera L. Seeds by Image Analysis and Comparison with Archaeological Remains. Vegetation His tory and Archaeobotany 22.3 (2013): 231–42. Print.Valamoti, SoultanaMaria. Harvesting the ‘Wild’? Exploring the Context of Fruit and Nut Exploitation at Neolithic Dikili Tash, with Special Reference to Wine. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 24.1 (2015): 35–46. Print.ï » ¿Pinney, Thomas. A History of Wine in America:  . University of California Press. (1989)From the Beginnings To ProhibitionAubry, Allison. Cork Versus Screw Cap: Dont Judge A Wine By How Its Sealed. The Salt. NPR. January 2, 2014Thach, Liz, MW. â€Å"The US Wine Industry in 2019 – Slowing but Steady, and Craving  Innovation.†

Plato s Views On Morality And Virtue - 1819 Words

In this dialogue we see Socrates in intellectual argument with a fellow philosopher: Protagoras who claims to be Sophists (professional expert in wisdom) they both use various arguments and counter arguments to prove their arguments on the topic of piety and virtue. Socrates believed that Virtues is something that could not be taught or learned, where Protagoras claimed that he can teach people â€Å"good judgement† in both personal affairs, civil issues and teach political science so that his students will become good citizens. The argument begins with Protagoras claiming that he can teach Hippocrates â€Å"good judgement† in both personal affairs and civic issues. He also claims to be able to teach political science in a way so that his students will become good citizens. To this Socrates replies that he did not know this was something that could be taught and in consequence he poses one of the central questions of this dialogue: is virtue teachable? Socrates’ reason for doubting that virtue can be taught is that virtuous parents often have unvirtuous children. Socrates explains this argument by illustrating many examples in which this has been proven to be true. Pericles was a leading figure for Athens, a good and a virtuous citizen. However when Clinias (the brother to Alcibades) was placed into Pericles’ care in an attempt to separate him from negative influences, and to teach him how to be a good virtuous citizen of Athens, he was returned after six months in Pericles’ careShow MoreRelatedEssay about Morals and Ethics1134 Words   |  5 Pages Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, and Nietzsche all had their own ideas for which one could reach happiness in his/her life. All have similarities in there reasoning except Nietzshe, who contradicts the others entirely. Plato states that to understand virtue is happiness. In turn virtue suffices for happiness and is necessary. Also he intuits that human reasoning prevails over spirited element or a person?s appetite. Aristotle?s arguments relate with Plato, but he builds more to it and finds his ownRead MoreKant And Kant s Philosophy On Ethics970 Words   |  4 Pagesquestion. A dictionary describes ethics as-moral principles that govern a person s or group s behavior. Is there a universal ethical behavior ? Are all countries ethical ? Theses very same questions many philosophers have tried to figure through time from Socrates to Immanuel kant (and to this very day for the matter!). While comparing two great eathist Plato and Immanuel Kant I, the writer argue that Kant s ideological views on ethics were far superior to Plato’s due to several factors. For one KantRead MoreSocrates : The Suicide Of Socrates1405 Words   |  6 Pagesscience and into the abstract realm of ethics and morality. When Socrates teachings were being taught in school, they all taught some form of morality as their foundational tenet, no matter the differences of the schools. However people interpreted those teac hings, it was clear that Socrates main focus was on how to live a good and moral life. A quote that backed that up was an unexamined life is not worth living (Apology, 38b), which is said by Plato. It is argued that Socrates believed idealsRead MorePlato s Euthyphro And Apology893 Words   |  4 Pagescharacteristics of wisdom. Though Plato was one of the earliest philosophers, the topic of wisdom is still debated by modern philosophers today, contemplating questions such as â€Å"What are the classifications of ‘wisdom’?† According to Plato’s two dialogues, the characteristics of wisdom have a strong correlation with the characteristics of â€Å"being a good person†. This concept highlights the values of virtue and selflessness and at the same time juxtapose views on virtue while taking into account the differentRead MorePlato And Aristotle s Theories Of Utilitarianism And Kantian Ethics1408 Words   |  6 PagesThe ancient theories of Plato and Aristotle differ greatly from the contemporary theories of Utilitarianism and Kantian ethics. Plato and Aristotle focused on the importance of virtue in an individual’s life. Plato believed that purity of the soul was the most important thing in life and can be achieved by mastering the four virtues: justice, wisdom, courage, and moderation. Aristotle believed that the goal of human life was to achieve happiness, which is made possible by the cultivation of a justRead MoreSocrates And Aristotle s Life1491 Words   |  6 Pagesdepends upon awareness and the power of contemplation rather than upon mere survival. The earliest accounts of human history chronicle the struggle for survival against all odds. It is therefore remarkable that roughly 2400 years ago the question of virtue was raised, let alone contemplated at great length, forming a foundation upon which Western philosophers build to the present day. Socrates and Aristotle were two key individuals credited for their roles in the advent of Classical philosophy. MenRead MoreEvaluating Historical Views of Leadership Essay1194 Words   |  5 Pages Evaluating Historical Views of Leadership March 9, 2014 University of Phoenix Evaluating Historical Views of Leadership This paper evaluates the leadership views of Plato, Aristotle, Lao-Tzu, and Machiavelli from the point of view of the modern military leader. The process of evaluation includes an examination of the commonalities and disparities between these views of leadership. The paper explores a definition of modern military leadership. The paper includes an assessment of theRead MoreAristotle on Happiness and Virtue Essay1749 Words   |  7 Pagesimportant study on ethics, personal morality and virtues is ‘The Nicomachean Ethics’, which has been greatly influencing works of literature in ethics and heavily read for centuries, is believed to be written 2000 years ago. However, it still serves as an iconic work of literature for readers as it provides modern readers with new perspectives to known human behaviors and needs. In his writing, Aristotle insisted that there are no particular standard set for morality and that any ethical theory mustRead MoreDifferences Between Plato s And Kant1184 Words   |  5 Pagesdifferences and similarities between Plato’s and Kant’s works. It is very apparent that both philosophers are speaking to the necessity of man developing personal ethics, but each thinker approaches this universal question using different principles. Plato uses Socrates’ dialogue to assess how one acquires wisdom through the acknowledgement of inherent ignorance. Kant evaluates the causes of people remaining in willful ignorance and the methods by which they can lift themselves out of such a state intoRead MoreAristotle And Marcus Cicero s Perceptions Of Virtue Ethics And The Development Of Economic Society1623 Words   |  7 PagesBut philosophers have always questioned the morality of how one conducts himself in society. In this essay, we will examine Plato, Aristotle, Saint Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and Marcus Cicero’s perceptions of what virtue ethics are, and how they facilitated the development of economic soc iety. Morality, distinctly defines what is right and what is wrong, but theory of virtue ethics is the mechanism an individual uses to make those moral decisions. Virtue is essentially having a good moral character

The Great Depression Essay - 858 Words

The economic crisis of the 1930s prompted a major reassessment of the relationship between the state and the economy in the United States. Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal (1933–1941) expanded welfare provision, orchestrated a massive program of public works, introduced a swath of new agencies, and greatly empowered organized labor. This was a period of highly noticeable political and ideological adjustment, but it was an adjustment characterized by paradox, ambivalence, and uncertainty, particularly in relation to the politics of consumption. The collapse of the U.S. economy following the Wall Street Crash in October 1929 was sudden and shocking. By mid-1930, the economy was at a virtual standstill. As David Kennedy explains, when†¦show more content†¦Alan Brinkley reports that by the mid-1940s, the New Deal state, having largely retreated from the more radical proposals to restructure the U.S. economy it had countenanced in the early 1930s, was committed to a consumer-oriented approach. This strategy involved combining modest use of Keynesian fiscal management with a commitment albeit limited in comparison to those of Scandinavian and some western European nations to the welfare state. Thereafter, doubts about the capacity of the market and of large-scale capitalist institutions to deliver prosperity which had been significant during the early New Deal did not resurface for a generation, with the onset of malaise and stagflation in the 1970s (Anthony, pp. 87). The Great Depression was an age of fear and insecurity. Innovations in consumer credit and the rise of the chain store meant that in the 1920s, more Americans than ever before had experienced the benefits of mass production. When it came, then, the Great Depression delivered a particularly hard blow to middle-class Americans who were encouraged by social engineers and by the burgeoning marketing and advertising industries, were increasingly defining themselves in terms of their ability to consume. Rather than rebelling, however, the dominant response to the collapse of the consumer culture of the 1920s was a mixture of self-blame, escapism, and conformity, notes Robert McElvaine. What is remarkable about the 1930s, in fact, is the degree to which patternsShow MoreRelatedThe Depression Of The Great Depression1223 Words   |  5 Pagesfar-reaching consequences as the Great Depression. This experience was the most extended and severe depression of the Western world. It was an economic downturn that began in 1929 and lasted until 1939. A large amount of America’s labor force lost their jobs and suffered during this crisis. During the nation’s financial disaster, Franklin Delano Roosevelt became president and made extensive changes to America’s political structure. The effects of the Great Depression had lasting consequences that areRead MoreThe Depression Of The Great Depression1232 Words   |  5 Pagespeople think that the stock crash was to blame for the Great Depression but that is not correct. Both the crash and depression were the result of problems with the economy that were still underneath society s minds. The depression affected people in a series of ways: poverty is spreading causing farm distress, unemployment, health, family stresses and unfortunately, discrimination increases. America tended to blame Hoover for the depression and all the problems. When the 1932 election came peopleRead MoreThe Great Depression Essay1390 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction: The world had faced two main economic problems. The first one was the Great Depression in the early of 20th Century. The second was the recent international financial crisis in 2008. The United States and Europe suffered severely for a long time from the great depression. The great depression was a great step and changed completely the economic policy making and the economic thoughts. It was not only an economic situation bit it was also miserable making, made people more attentionRead MoreThe Great Depression1292 Words   |  6 PagesBefore the crash Before the start of the great depression the United States was a country of great economic wealth, with new technology being invented and a boom in industry. Due to a boom in America’s Industry because of World War One the economy was at an all-time high with a tremendous amount of prosperity. Following the end of world war one the industrial might that America had was being used for peaceful, domestic purposes instead of being used for violence and war. New technologies like carsRead MoreThe Depression Of The Great Depression2071 Words   |  9 PagesPaul Von Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler Chancellor on the 30th January 1933. The Depression did play a vital role in this, however other factors such as the Nazis propaganda, the resentment of the Weimar republic and the political situation of 1932-1933 also contributed to his success. Before the Great Depression, the Nazis gained 12 seats and 2.6% of the vote in the May election of 1928. Despite this, by July 1932, Hitler gained 230 seats and 37.3% of the vote in the Reichstag. This is a dramaticRead MoreThe Great Depression1731 Words   |  7 PagesThe 1920’s was a decade of discovery for America. As mentioned in â€Å"who was roaring in the twenties? —Origins of the great depression,† by Robert S. McElvaine America suffered with the great depression due to several factors but it managed to stay prosperous at the end. In â€Å"America society and culture in the 1920’s,† by David A. Shannon there was much more to the great depression. It was a time of prosperity an economic change. Women and men were discovering who they were and their value to societyRead MoreThe Great Depression1551 Words   |  6 PagesThe Great Depression was one of the most devastating events recorded in history. The nation as a whole plummeted in one econ omic downfall. Few individuals escaped the effects of the depression. The hardship of unemployment and the loss of homes and farms were a large portion of the pain caused by the economic crisis. Through all of these sufferings, women had a large impact on society. Women faced heavy discrimination and social criticism during the Depression Even though through research it is provenRead MoreThe Great Depression1186 Words   |  5 Pagesfriends is the true definition of of what the Great Depression really was. It was a time that most people want to never remember or ever happen again. You would think the United States would have learned from their mistakes but it seems we are going down the same road once again without even taking a step back and realizing it. When people talk about the Great Depression not a single person will have anything good to say about it. It caused families a great deal of pain that they will never forget. WithRead MoreThe Great Depression1368 Words   |  6 PagesAfter WW1 the Great Depression had a very late impact on the major film companies in France, when it did, it unfortunately caused several film studios to go bankrupt, then in the late 1920’s to 1930’s many small film companies and groups emerged giving birth to the tendency called poetic realism. Because the large companies who made films with a focus on making money were gone the filmmakers and artists were able to concern themselves with the art of film, they often took poetic innovations thatRead MoreGreat Depression7197 Words   |  29 PagesGreat Depression From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia {draw:frame} Dorothea Langes Migrant Mother depicts destitute pea pickers in California, centering on Florence Owens Thompson, age 32, a mother of seven children, in Nipomo, California, March 1936. The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression) in the decade preceding World War II. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, but in most countries it started in about 1929 and lasted until the late 1930s

Aretha Franklin free essay sample

Discusses the life and career of the African-American soul singer who blended gospel and popular styles. Aretha Franklin did more than any other artist to bring the forms and spirit of African-American gospel music into the popular arena. Franklin possesses one of the finest voices in the world and, throughout the late 1960s and the 1970s, she created a stream of hit records that helped define black popular music of the time. Whatever labels, soul, or rhythm and blues, or rock and roll, are placed on her music, Franklin was the primary force in combining the sound and feeling of one major American art form with another. The history of African American music has been characterized by cross-pollination among various forms. Country blues, urban blues, New Orleans Jazz, Bebop, big-band jazz, and rhythm and blues, have all influenced each other profoundly. These influences flowed back and forth among the various forms. We will write a custom essay sample on Aretha Franklin or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page But

Class mobility free essay sample

This paper looks at how much social class origin, caste and community and gender affect one’s chances of moving ahead in society by getting managerial and professional jobs and this trend changes over time. DATA: National election survey of 2004 contains information on class, caste background and current occupation. National sample survey data over years have been used to look at sectoral distribution of labour forces. METHOD: Classes have been studied under five classifications and similarly castes have classified under eight categories and both are socially viable. Absolute mobility has been used to study intergenerational social mobility and after allowing for structural changes, relative mobility has been analyzed by using odds ratio. Finally to study the effect of castes/community on social mobility logistic regression have been used with access to salariat class destination as dependent variable and class origins and castes as independent variables. To look at the trends over time, five year birth cohort data have been used with focus on father’s occupation to avoid any impact of life-cycle process. We will write a custom essay sample on Class mobility or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page HYPOTHESIS: Since India has gone through various social economic changes over years, like a capitalist country it is expected to become more open with greater equality of opportunities after liberalization of post 1980s. Therefore, equality of opportunity should rise along with a rise in absolute mobility. Discussion to patterns of intergenerational mobility of men and women is limited only to paid employment. EVALUATION: Paper pointed out that proportion of Indian labour in trade, manufacture and services has risen but the largest workforce participation still remains in agriculture. There has been an increasing room at the top and agricultural workers and farmer’s participation has declined over time. More women as compared to men remain in agricultural occupations. Also, the occupational change has been there prior to liberalization. Therefore, we do not see any impact of modernization in the changing occupational patterns. Crosstabs of NES data between classes of father and respondent clearly shows a stable intergenerational society for both men and women. A trend analysis of absolute mobility shows decreasing upward mobility and increasing downward mobility as opposed to our hypothesis. Trends in inequality of opportunity calculated by using odds ratio and then by log linear model (appropriate way to test for increasing fluidity) shows a clear pattern of increasing inequality of opportunity both in agriculture and informal sector but grater in farming sector. A higher odds ratio of farmer: salariat than manual: salariat ratio points out some sectoral barriers in addition to class barriers. Also, the movement between farming and salariat jobs is harder for women. Overall there has been little demonstrable increase in equality of opportunity in Indian society. When the impact of castes was analysed is was seen that by using the logit regression and recoding castes in eight distinctive categories no clear trend could be observed for both men and women. Rather the father’s class has been a strong determining factor for access to salaried class destinations. Surprisingly India which is a caste based society and policies of reservation are also based on castes, it is the class which determines the upward social mobility. Caste reservation does not seen to have benefitted the SCs and STs as might have been hoped. CRITIC The paper in the beginning explained various modernization theses and asking research questions based on demand and supply side issues. It was said that we explore these various possibilities in remainder of the chapter. But the whole focus was concentrated only on class and lastly caste analyses. Competitive market, formalized recruitment procedure and equality of condition were not incorporated as results of modernization as per my understanding. I am not aware though if such a method is possible. Secondly, not undertaking the marital social mobility of women has been considered a limitation in the study but since the paper looks at the social mobility in terms of access to salarit jobs, marriage of a women to a higher class individual than her father does indicate a net upward social mobility of her living standard but not her chances of getting a better job. Even if this argument doen’t sounds good then a social mobility through marriage is not in any case an indicator of modernization of society. Lastly, in the birth cohort method, one has to self calculated roughly where exactly the period of liberalization has been shown on the table or graph. Since our focus is on modernization, had there been a mention of period of liberalization along the birth years it would have been easy to anlyze the changes before and after the liberalization.